Understand your cancer report
A report can be full of unfamiliar words. These plain-language explanations tell you what a phrase means, what it does not prove, and what to ask — so the conversation with your care team makes more sense.
These pages explain report language in general. They cannot interpret your personal report — only your care team can do that.
Have the whole report in front of you? The report highlighter marks every term we explain, including scores like BI-RADS 4A or Gleason 4+3=7, and links each one to its page. Your text stays in your browser.
Most-searched report language
Common report terms, explained
These terms show up in pathology, imaging, lab, biomarker, and oncology notes. Each link goes straight to a plain-language explanation.
- ECOG performance statusHow activity level may be recorded in oncology notes and trial criteria.
- Karnofsky performance statusAnother common score for function, symptoms, and treatment planning.
- TNM stagingTumor, Node, and Metastasis language used to describe spread.
- BI-RADS 4What this mammogram category can mean and what usually happens next.
- Oncotype DX scoreHow recurrence-score language can come up in breast cancer decisions.
- MammaPrint scoreWhat a genomic-risk result can and cannot tell by itself.
- M-protein spikeA lab term people often see in myeloma and related blood-work conversations.
- PSA densityHow PSA is sometimes interpreted with prostate size and other risk details.
- EGFR exon 20A lung-cancer biomarker phrase that can affect treatment questions.
Watch: report explainers
Short captioned videos that walk through each kind of report in plain language.
How to read a cancer pathology report3 min · Captioned
Biopsy results, explained3 min · Captioned
Cancer staging and TNM, explained3 min · Captioned
Grade vs. stage — what's the difference?2 min · Captioned
Surgical margins, explained2 min · Captioned
Tumor markers, explained3 min · Captioned
How to read a CT or MRI report3 min · Captioned
Browse by type of report
All 275 report-language guides, sorted by the report the words usually appear on. Each section has a printable handout to take to your appointment.
Biopsy & pathology reports
The words a pathologist uses to describe tissue removed by biopsy or surgery.
Printable: Pathology Report Terms
- Benign vs. Malignant: What's the Difference?Benign means not cancer; malignant means cancer. The key difference is the ability to invade and spread.
- Biopsy vs. Aspiration: What's the Difference?Aspiration draws out fluid or cells with a thin needle; a biopsy removes a tissue sample to examine. The terms overlap, and here's how they fit together.
- How to Read a Cancer Pathology ReportWhich part of a pathology report holds the answer, and what specimen, gross, microscopic, margins, grade and synoptic sections actually mean.
- Invasive Lobular Carcinoma on Your Pathology ReportInvasive lobular carcinoma on a breast pathology report: what the term means, how it differs from ductal carcinoma, and why dense tissue can hide it.
- Polyp vs. Tumor: What's the Difference?A polyp is a growth that sticks out from a lining, often harmless; a tumor is any abnormal lump. Some polyps are a type of tumor, and some can become cancer.
- Surgical Margins: What Positive, Close, and Clear MeanWhat positive, close and clear surgical margins mean on a pathology report, and what to ask your care team about next steps.
- What Do "Negative" and "Close" Margins Mean?A negative (clear) margin means no cancer cells were seen at the edge of removed tissue. A close margin is nearby. What each means and what to ask.
- What Do CIN 1, CIN 2, and CIN 3 Mean on a Cervical Biopsy?CIN 1, 2, and 3 describe abnormal cells on a cervical biopsy. CIN 3 is not cancer but may become cancer. What each grade means, per NCI, and what to ask.
- What Do In-Transit and Satellite Metastases Mean in Melanoma?Satellite, microsatellite, and in-transit metastases are small spots of melanoma near the main tumor. What each term means and how it is staged.
- What Do LSIL and HSIL Mean on a Pap Test?LSIL and HSIL are abnormal Pap test results. NCI says LSIL usually goes away on its own; HSIL could become cancer if not treated. What to ask.
- What Does 'Adenocarcinoma' Mean on a Report?A plain-language explanation of the pathology term adenocarcinoma — cancer that begins in gland-like cells. Based on the National Cancer Institute.
- What Does 'Atypia' or 'Atypical Cells' Mean?A plain-language explanation of atypia on a pathology report — cells that look unusual but are not clearly cancer. Based on the National Cancer Institute.
- What Does 'Atypical Cells' Mean on a Report?Atypical cells look abnormal under a microscope but are not clearly cancer. Here's what the term means on a report and why it often means more checking.
- What Does 'Atypical Ductal Hyperplasia' (ADH) Mean?Atypical ductal hyperplasia (ADH) is a benign breast finding that raises breast cancer risk. What ADH and ALH mean and what to ask.
- What Does 'Barrett Esophagus With Dysplasia' Mean?Barrett esophagus with dysplasia means abnormal cells were found in the lower esophagus. NCI says dysplasia is not cancer. What to ask.
- What Does 'Ductal Carcinoma In Situ' (DCIS) Mean?DCIS means abnormal cells are in the lining of a breast duct and have not spread outside it. What the term means and what to ask.
- What Does 'Dysplasia' Mean on a Report?A plain-language explanation of dysplasia — abnormal but not yet cancerous cell changes — and why it is watched. Based on the National Cancer Institute.
- What Does 'Frozen Section' Mean on a Pathology Report?A frozen section is a quick look at tissue when an immediate answer is needed. NCI says it takes about 15 to 20 minutes. How it differs from the final report.
- What Does 'Hyperplasia' Mean?A plain-language explanation of hyperplasia — an increase in the number of cells — and how it differs from cancer. Based on the National Cancer Institute.
- What Does 'Isolated Tumor Cells' Mean in a Lymph Node?Isolated tumor cells (ITCs) are tiny clusters of cancer cells in a lymph node, 0.2 mm or smaller in breast cancer staging. What N0(i+) means.
- What Does 'Lobular Carcinoma In Situ' (LCIS) Mean?LCIS means abnormal cells are found in the breast lobules. NCI says it raises breast cancer risk in either breast. What to ask.
- What Does 'Serrated Polyp' Mean on a Colon Biopsy?Serrated polyps have a saw-tooth look under a microscope. NCI names three types, from hyperplastic polyps to sessile serrated polyps. What to ask.
- What Does 'Squamous Cell Carcinoma' Mean?A plain-language explanation of squamous cell carcinoma — cancer that begins in flat, skin-like lining cells. Based on the National Cancer Institute.
- What Does 'Villous' or 'Tubulovillous Adenoma' Mean?A villous or tubulovillous adenoma is a type of polyp found in the colon and other parts of the digestive tract. NCI says these may become cancer.
- What Does "Extranodal Extension" Mean?Extranodal extension means cancer in a lymph node has grown beyond the node capsule. What ENE or ECE can suggest and what to ask.
- What Does "Lymphovascular Invasion" Mean?Lymphovascular invasion (LVI) means cancer cells were seen inside small blood or lymph vessels in the tissue sample. What it suggests and what to ask.
- What Does "Necrosis" Mean on a Pathology Report?Necrosis means dead tissue was seen in the sample. In a cancer report, its meaning depends on the tumor type, amount, and other findings.
- What Does "Perineural Invasion" Mean?Perineural invasion means cancer cells were seen around or along nerves in the tissue sample. What it can suggest, what it does not prove, and what to ask.
- What Does "Positive Lymph Node" Mean?Positive Lymph Node explained in plain English: what it can mean, what it cannot prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does "Positive Margin" Mean in a Pathology Report?A positive margin means cancer cells were found at the edge of removed tissue. What that does and doesn't mean, and what to ask your care team.
- What Does "Suspicious For Malignancy" Mean?Suspicious For Malignancy explained in plain English: what it can mean, what it cannot prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does Bethesda Category Mean on a Thyroid Biopsy?Bethesda thyroid biopsy categories explain whether a thyroid nodule sample is benign, suspicious, malignant, or unclear.
- What Does Bethesda III Mean?Bethesda III can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What Does Bethesda IV Mean?Bethesda IV can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What Does Bethesda V Mean?Bethesda V can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What Does Bone Marrow Involvement Mean?Bone marrow involvement means abnormal cells were found in the sample. What the percentage means and which tests run on the same needle.
- What Does Breslow Depth Mean on a Melanoma Report?Breslow depth is how thick a melanoma is, measured in millimeters. What the number means, how it sets the T category, and what to ask.
- What Does Carcinoma In Situ Mean?Carcinoma in situ means abnormal cells are present but have not grown into nearby tissue. Here's what the term means on a pathology report and what to ask.
- What Does Clark Level Mean on a Melanoma Report?Clark level describes which layer of skin a melanoma reaches, from I to V. What each level means and how it compares with Breslow depth.
- What Does Extraprostatic Extension Mean?Extraprostatic extension means prostate cancer has grown just beyond the edge of the prostate. What it means on a report and how it is staged (pT3a).
- What Does Hyperplasia Mean on a Pathology Report?Hyperplasia means more cells than usual, and NCI says those cells look normal. The words next to it decide what happens.
- What Does Invasive Mean on a Pathology Report?Invasive means cancer cells have grown beyond where they started into nearby tissue. Here's what the term means on a pathology report and what to ask.
- What Does Metaplasia Mean?Metaplasia means one type of tissue has changed into another. What it means in Barrett esophagus and the cervix, and how it differs from dysplasia.
- What Does Mitotic Rate Mean on a Pathology Report?Mitotic rate counts how many cells are dividing in a sample, a clue to how fast a tumor may be growing. Here's what it means and what to ask.
- What Does Neoplasm Mean on a Report?Neoplasm is another word for tumor. On a report it can mean benign or malignant, so look at the word next to it. Based on the National Cancer Institute.
- What Does R0, R1, and R2 Margins Mean?R0, R1, and R2 Margins can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What Does Seminal Vesicle Invasion Mean?Seminal vesicle invasion means prostate cancer has grown into the seminal vesicles. What it means on a report, how it is staged (pT3b), and what to ask.
- What Does the Bethesda System Mean on a Pap Test?The Bethesda system is the naming scheme a Pap report uses for sample quality and for each kind of cervical cell change.
- What Does the Ki-67 Score Mean?A plain-language explanation of the Ki-67 proliferation marker on a pathology report. Based on the National Cancer Institute.
- What Does Tumor Deposit Mean on a Colon Cancer Report?Tumor deposits are small clumps of cancer in the fat near the bowel, apart from lymph nodes. What they mean on a colon cancer report and what N1c means.
- What Does Ulceration Mean on a Melanoma Report?Ulceration means the skin over a melanoma has broken down. What "ulceration present" or "absent" means on a report and how it affects staging.
- What Is Invasive Ductal Carcinoma? A Report TermInvasive ductal carcinoma is the most common breast cancer diagnosis. What invasive means on a pathology report, how it differs from DCIS, and what comes next.
Scan & imaging reports
Phrases radiologists use on CT, MRI, PET, ultrasound and mammogram reports, including scoring systems.
Printable: Scan Appointment Notes
- BI-RADS 0: What Happens Next?BI-RADS 0 usually means the breast imaging exam is incomplete and more information is needed.
- CT vs. MRI vs. PET Scan: What Each ShowsCT uses x-rays for detailed slices, MRI uses magnets and radio waves for soft tissue, and PET shows how active tissues are. Here is what each scan shows.
- Cyst vs. Tumor: What's the Difference?A cyst is a sac in the body that may hold fluid or other material. A tumor is an abnormal mass of tissue. They are not the same, and tests tell them apart.
- Liver Lesion on CT: What Happens Next?What a liver lesion on CT can mean and what follow-up may be recommended.
- Lung Nodule Found on CT: What Happens Next?What a lung nodule on CT can mean, how size and risk affect follow-up, and what questions to ask.
- MRI vs. CT Scan: What's the Difference?An MRI uses magnets and radio waves; a CT uses x-rays. They show different tissues better and are used for different reasons. Here's how the two scans compare.
- PET Scan vs. CT Scan: What's the Difference?A PET scan shows how tissue is working; a CT scan shows detailed structure. Here's how the two imaging tests differ, when each is used, and why they're
- Thyroid Nodule on Ultrasound: What Happens Next?What a thyroid nodule on ultrasound can mean, how TI-RADS helps, and when biopsy may be recommended.
- Ultrasound vs. Mammogram: What's the Difference?A mammogram uses low-dose x-rays; an ultrasound uses sound waves. They show different things and are often used together.
- Understanding Frightening Language in CT & MRI ReportsWhat phrases like cannot be excluded, clinical correlation recommended and indeterminate really signal in a CT or MRI report.
- What an 'Indeterminate Lesion' on a Scan MeansIndeterminate describes the limits of the scan, not a hidden verdict. What the word means, why it appears, and what usually happens next.
- What Are Microcalcifications on a Mammogram?Microcalcifications are tiny calcium specks in the breast. Clusters or suspicious patterns may need follow-up.
- What Do LI-RADS 3, 4, and 5 Mean?LR-3, LR-4, and LR-5 are three rungs on the LI-RADS probability ladder, and each one leads to a different next step.
- What Does 'Bone Lesion' Mean on a Scan?A bone lesion is an abnormal area in bone seen on a scan. It is a general term, not a diagnosis, and your care team uses more tests to find the cause.
- What Does 'Contrast Enhancement' Mean on a Scan?Contrast enhancement means a tissue or spot becomes easier to see after contrast. It is a scan feature, not a diagnosis.
- What Does 'Enhancing Lesion' Mean on MRI?An enhancing lesion is an area that becomes more visible after contrast. It is a clue, not a diagnosis.
- What Does 'Hypermetabolic' Mean on a PET Scan?Hypermetabolic means an area is using more sugar than usual and lights up on a PET scan. Cancer can cause this, but other conditions can too.
- What Does 'Indeterminate' Mean on a Scan?'Indeterminate' means a finding is unclear — not clearly benign, not clearly cancer.
- What Does 'Lytic Lesion' Mean on a Scan?A lytic lesion is an area where bone looks broken down or less dense. It can have benign, infection-related, or cancer-related causes.
- What Does 'Reactive Lymph Node' Mean?A reactive lymph node usually means the node looks active from immune response, often infection or inflammation, not automatically cancer.
- What Does 'Subcentimeter Lymph Node' Mean?Subcentimeter means smaller than one centimeter. A small lymph node can be normal, reactive, or occasionally still important depending on context.
- What Does 'Unremarkable' Mean on a Scan?'Unremarkable' is good news in radiology — it means nothing abnormal or worrying was seen. Here's what the word means on a scan report and what to ask.
- What Does "Borderline Enlarged Lymph Node" Mean?Borderline Enlarged Lymph Node explained in plain English: what it can mean, what it cannot prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does "Cystic Mass" Mean?Cystic Mass explained in plain English: what it can mean, what it cannot prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does "Ground-Glass Opacity" Mean on a Lung Scan?A ground-glass opacity (GGO) is a hazy area on a lung CT scan. It has many causes — most not cancer. What GGO means and what follow-up may involve.
- What Does "Hypoattenuating Lesion" Mean?Hypoattenuating Lesion explained in plain English: what it can mean, what it cannot prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does "Hypodense Lesion" Mean?Hypodense Lesion explained in plain English: what it can mean, what it cannot prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does "Incidental Finding" Mean on a Scan?An incidental finding is something spotted on a scan that wasn't what the test was looking for. Most are harmless. What it means and what follow-up may involve.
- What Does "Interval Growth" Mean?Interval Growth explained in plain English: what it can mean, what it cannot prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does "Mild Uptake" Mean?Mild Uptake explained in plain English: what it can mean, what it cannot prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does "Sclerotic Lesion" Mean?Sclerotic Lesion explained in plain English: what it can mean, what it cannot prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does "Solid Mass" Mean?Solid Mass explained in plain English: what it can mean, what it cannot prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does "Stable Nodule" Mean?Stable Nodule explained in plain English: what it can mean, what it cannot prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does "Suspicious" or "Indeterminate" Mean on a Scan?"Suspicious" and "indeterminate" describe how confident a radiologist is about a finding — not a diagnosis. What each means and what usually happens next.
- What Does "SUV Max" Mean?SUV Max explained in plain English: what it can mean, what it cannot prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does a "Pulmonary Nodule" Mean on a Scan?A pulmonary nodule is a small spot in the lung found on imaging. It is not a diagnosis. What a nodule means and what to ask about follow-up.
- What Does Adnexal Mass Mean?Adnexal mass names a location beside the uterus, not a cause. What the scan features mean, and what CA-125 can and cannot settle.
- What Does Anechoic Mean on an Ultrasound?Anechoic means an area sends back no echoes, so it looks black on ultrasound. Fluid often looks this way. What the word means and what to ask.
- What Does Architectural Distortion Mean on a Mammogram?Architectural distortion means the normal pattern of breast tissue looks pulled or bent, with no clear lump. It can have benign causes, but cancer can also cause it, so it often gets a closer look.
- What Does Ascites Mean on a Scan?Ascites is fluid in the abdomen. Liver disease heads the list of causes, cancer is one of several others, and a needle sample is what tells them apart.
- What Does Asymmetry Mean on a Mammogram?Asymmetry means an area of breast tissue looks different from the same area in the other breast. What asymmetry, focal, global and developing asymmetry mean.
- What Does Atelectasis Mean on a Chest X-Ray or CT?Atelectasis means part of a lung has not fully filled with air. It is common after surgery, and can also come from a blocked airway or a tumor.
- What Does BI-RADS 1 Mean?BI-RADS 1 means negative: nothing to report. What that does and does not tell you, and what to ask next.
- What Does BI-RADS 2 Mean?BI-RADS 2 means benign: the radiologist saw something and identified it as not cancer. What that covers and what to ask next.
- What Does BI-RADS 3 Mean?BI-RADS 3: what it usually means, what it does not prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does BI-RADS 4 Mean?BI-RADS 4: what it usually means, what it does not prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does BI-RADS 5 Mean?BI-RADS 5: what it usually means, what it does not prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does BI-RADS 6 Mean?BI-RADS 6 means cancer already proven by biopsy. Why it appears on a report, what it is not, and what to ask next.
- What Does BI-RADS Mean on a Mammogram Report?BI-RADS is a standard 0-to-6 scale radiologists use to summarize a mammogram result. Here's what each category means and what to ask.
- What Does Calcification Mean on a Mammogram?Breast calcifications are calcium deposits seen on a mammogram. Most are benign, but patterns can change follow-up.
- What Does Complex Cyst Mean?Complex cyst describes how a fluid-filled sac looks on a scan, not what it is. Which features earn the word, and what usually follows.
- What Does Deauville Score Mean?The Deauville score is a 1-to-5 visual scale used to interpret FDG-PET scans in lymphoma response assessment.
- What Does Enlarged Lymph Node Mean on a Scan?An enlarged lymph node on CT, MRI, ultrasound, or PET can have cancer and non-cancer causes. Context matters.
- What Does FDG-Avid Mean on a PET Scan?FDG-avid means tissue took up the PET tracer. It can suggest active cells, but it is not always cancer.
- What Does Hyperechoic Mean on an Ultrasound?Hyperechoic means an area sends back more echoes than the tissue around it, so it looks brighter on ultrasound. It describes how something looks, not what it is.
- What Does Hypoechoic Mean on an Ultrasound?Hypoechoic means an area sends back fewer echoes than the tissue around it, so it looks darker gray on ultrasound. It describes how something looks, not what it is.
- What Does LI-RADS 4 Mean?LI-RADS 4 can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What Does LI-RADS 5 Mean?LI-RADS 5 can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What Does LI-RADS Mean on a Liver Scan?LI-RADS: what it usually means, what it does not prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does Lung-RADS Mean on a Lung Screening CT?Lung-RADS is the category on a lung cancer screening CT report. What each category (1, 2, 3, 4A, 4B, 4X, S) means and what usually comes next.
- What Does Lymphadenopathy Mean?Lymphadenopathy is the medical name for swollen lymph nodes. Infection is the most common cause by a long way.
- What Does Mass Effect Mean on a Brain Scan?Mass effect means something in the skull, like a tumor, swelling or bleeding, is pushing on nearby brain tissue. What the phrase means and when to call 911.
- What Does Mediastinal Lymph Node Mean?Mediastinal lymph nodes sit in the central chest. Which side sets N stage, 1 cm is the CT biopsy threshold, and PET errs often enough that tissue is needed.
- What Does Nonspecific Mean on a Scan Report?Nonspecific means a finding on a scan could have more than one cause, and the picture alone cannot say which. It is not a diagnosis.
- What Does O-RADS Mean on a Pelvic Report?O-RADS: what it usually means, what it does not prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does Omental Caking Mean?Omental caking is a CT description: the fatty apron in the abdomen looks thick and solid. What it suggests, what it can't prove, and what happens next.
- What Does Peritoneal Nodule Mean?Plain-language help for peritoneal nodule on a cancer report: what it may mean, what it does not prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does PI-RADS 1 or 2 Mean?PI-RADS 1 means very low and PI-RADS 2 means a low likelihood of significant prostate cancer on MRI. What a low score means and what it does not rule out.
- What Does PI-RADS 3 Mean?PI-RADS 3 is the equivocal score, where the real question is whether to biopsy at all and PSA density often decides.
- What Does PI-RADS 4 Mean?PI-RADS 4 is the score where biopsy is expected, and the live question becomes how the prostate gets sampled.
- What Does PI-RADS 5 Mean?A prostate MRI reaches PI-RADS 5 for one of two reasons: the lesion is 1.5 cm or larger, or it appears to reach outside the gland.
- What Does PI-RADS Mean on Prostate MRI?PI-RADS: what it usually means, what it does not prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does Pleural Effusion Mean on a Scan?A pleural effusion is fluid between the lung and the chest wall. Heart failure is the most common cause of one type. Infection and cancer can also cause it.
- What Does Restricted Diffusion Mean on an MRI?Restricted diffusion means water moves less freely in an area on a special MRI sequence. It can be seen with some tumors, but also with stroke and abscess.
- What Does Spiculated Mass Mean on a Mammogram?A spiculated mass has spikes or points on its surface. On breast imaging, it is a finding that usually needs follow-up.
- What Does the Bosniak Classification Mean for a Kidney Cyst?Bosniak is the scale radiologists use to sort kidney cysts on CT or MRI. What classes I, II, IIF, III and IV mean, and what usually comes next.
- What Does Thyroid Nodule TI-RADS Mean?thyroid nodule TI-RADS: what it usually means, what it does not prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does TI-RADS 3 Mean?TR3 means a thyroid nodule scored 3 points on ACR TI-RADS, or mildly suspicious. Size then decides between a biopsy, follow-up scans, or neither.
- What Does TI-RADS 4 Mean?TR4 is a middle level on the TI-RADS ultrasound scale. Learn what it can and cannot tell you, and what to ask your care team.
- What Does TI-RADS 5 Mean?TI-RADS 5 can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What Does TI-RADS Mean on a Thyroid Ultrasound?TI-RADS sorts a thyroid nodule into a risk level based on five ultrasound features. Ask your team how your level and nodule size shape the plan.
- What Is a PSMA PET Scan?What a PSMA PET scan is, what it is used for in prostate cancer, and how it differs from a regular PET scan. Based on the National Cancer Institute.
- What Is the Dye in an MRI With Contrast?What the dye used in some MRI scans is, what it does, and what to tell the imaging staff before the scan. Based on the National Cancer Institute and NIBIB.
- Why PET Scans Show Areas of Uptake (Hypermetabolism)What MedlinePlus says about bright spots on a PET scan: cancer cells show up, but so can other conditions.
- X-ray vs. CT Scan: What's the Difference?A CT scan is built from many x-rays to make detailed slice pictures, so it shows more detail but uses a higher radiation dose than a standard x-ray.
Blood, urine & tumor-marker tests
Numbers and flags from lab results: blood counts, chemistry, urine tests and tumor markers.
Printable: Making Sense of Scan and Test Results
- Eosinophil Count and Cancer: What High or Low MeansWhat an eosinophil count on a CBC means: the normal range, common causes of high or low results, the rare blood cancers behind some cases, and next steps.
- What Does 'Blasts' Mean on a Blood Test?Blasts are immature blood cells. When a report mentions blasts, more tests are usually needed.
- What Does a Rising PSA Mean?A rising PSA means the level went up between tests. It has many causes besides cancer, and the trend matters more than one number. Here's what to ask.
- What Does Absolute Neutrophil Count (ANC) Mean?Absolute neutrophil count (ANC) measures infection-fighting white blood cells. Chemotherapy can lower it.
- What Does AFP Mean on a Blood Test?AFP (alpha-fetoprotein) is a tumor marker in blood, used with some liver cancers and germ cell tumors.
- What Does Beta-2 Microglobulin Mean on a Blood Test?Beta-2 microglobulin (B2M) is a protein measured in blood or urine, used with multiple myeloma, CLL, and some lymphomas.
- What Does Beta-hCG Mean as a Tumor Marker?Beta-hCG is a pregnancy hormone that is also used as a tumor marker with germ cell tumors and choriocarcinoma.
- What Does Bilirubin Mean on a Blood Test?Bilirubin is a yellow substance made when old red blood cells break down. High levels can point to a liver or blood problem.
- What Does CA 15-3 Mean on a Blood Test?CA 15-3 and CA 27.29 are tumor markers measured in blood, used to follow breast cancer.
- What Does CA-125 Mean on a Blood Test?CA-125 is a tumor marker measured in blood, used mainly to follow certain cancers over time. Many non-cancer conditions can also raise it.
- What Does Calcitonin Mean on a Blood Test?Calcitonin is a thyroid hormone measured in blood, used mainly with medullary thyroid cancer.
- What Does CEA Mean on a Blood Test?CEA is a tumor marker measured in blood, often used to follow certain cancers over time.
- What Does Chromogranin A Mean on a Blood Test?Chromogranin A (CgA) is a protein measured in blood, used as a tumor marker with neuroendocrine tumors.
- What Does Creatinine Mean on a Blood Test?Creatinine is a waste product from muscles. A blood test for it helps check how well the kidneys are working.
- What Does eGFR Mean on a Kidney Test?eGFR is an estimate of how well your kidneys filter blood. It is not the same as an EGFR gene mutation.
- What Does Flow Cytometry Mean?Flow cytometry is a lab method that reads the surface markers on cells. Why the marker list is the result, and where it fits in a blood cancer workup.
- What Does Free Light Chain Ratio Mean?Free Light Chain Ratio can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What Does High Uric Acid Mean During Cancer Care?Uric acid is a waste product from broken-down cells. It may be checked during some cancer treatments.
- What Does HPV 16 or 18 Positive Mean?A positive HPV 16 or 18 result means the virus was found now, not that cancer is present. What the follow-up depends on.
- What Does Low Magnesium Mean on a Blood Test?Magnesium helps muscles, nerves and the heart work. Low levels can come from diarrhea, some medicines and kidney problems.
- What Does Low Sodium Mean on a Blood Test?Low sodium (hyponatremia) can come from vomiting, diarrhea, some medicines, some cancers and other conditions.
- What Does M-Protein Spike Mean?M-Protein Spike can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What Does Protein in Urine Mean?Protein in urine (proteinuria) can be a sign of a kidney problem, but it can also be temporary.
- What Does PSA Density Mean?PSA density can appear next to a PSA result or MRI report. What can raise PSA for reasons other than cancer, and what to ask your team.
- What Does PSA Doubling Time Mean?PSA doubling time is how long it takes for a PSA level to double. What NCI says it may mean after prostate cancer treatment.
- What Does Thyroglobulin Mean After Thyroid Cancer?Thyroglobulin is a thyroid protein measured in blood, used to follow thyroid cancer after treatment.
Stage, grade & treatment response
How far a cancer has spread, how the cells look, and the words used to describe how treatment is working.
Printable: First Questions After a Diagnosis
- Complete vs. Partial Response: What They MeanA complete response means no cancer can be detected on tests; a partial response means the cancer shrank but some remains. Both can be good news.
- Micrometastases vs. Macrometastases ExplainedThe 0.2 mm and 2 mm thresholds that separate isolated tumor cells, micrometastases and macrometastases in lymph nodes, and what each one means.
- Remission vs. Cure: What's the Difference?Remission means signs of cancer have decreased or disappeared; cure means the cancer is gone and won't come back.
- Remission vs. NED vs. Cancer-FreeWhat is the difference between complete remission, No Evidence of Disease (NED), and cancer-free? Learn why doctors use specific wording.
- Remission vs. No Evidence of Disease: What's the Difference?"Remission" and "no evidence of disease" overlap but aren't identical. What complete and partial remission mean, and how NED fits in.
- Stable Disease vs. Partial Response vs. ProgressionWhat RECIST measures: partial response is 30% shrinkage, progression 20% growth, and stable disease is everything in between.
- Stage 2 vs. Stage 3 Cancer: What ChangesStage numbers describe how much cancer there is and how far it has spread. A higher number, like stage 3 versus stage 2, generally means more local spread.
- Stage 3 vs. Stage 4 Cancer: What's the Difference?Stage 3 usually means cancer has grown or spread to nearby lymph nodes; stage 4 means it has spread to distant parts of the body.
- Stage vs. Grade: What's the Difference?Stage describes how far a cancer has spread. Grade describes how abnormal the cells look. They answer different questions — here's how they fit together.
- Understanding Gleason Scores and Grade GroupsWhy the lowest Gleason score is 6, not 1, how Grade Groups 1-5 map onto it, and what your prostate biopsy grade does and does not predict.
- Understanding Prostate Cancer Gleason ScoresA plain-language clinical breakdown of biomarker testing, diagnostic staging, and treatment options for Understanding Prostate Cancer Gleason Scores.
- What 'Poorly Differentiated' Means on Your Report"Poorly differentiated" describes how abnormal cancer cells look under the microscope. What differentiation and grade mean, and what to ask your team.
- What a Mixed Response to Treatment MeansWhen some tumors shrink while others grow. How teams interpret a mixed or dissociated response, and why pseudoprogression must be ruled out first.
- What Do Stage Letters Like 2A and 3B Mean?What the letters after a cancer stage number, such as 2A, 3B or IIIC, mean, with examples from colon, ovarian and prostate cancer. Based on the National Cancer Institute.
- What Does 'Bone Metastasis' Mean?Bone metastasis means cancer has spread to bone from another part of the body. It is different from primary bone cancer.
- What Does 'Moderately Differentiated' Mean?Moderately differentiated means tumor cells look somewhat, but not very, abnormal. NCI calls it grade 2, or intermediate grade. What to ask.
- What Does 'Stable Disease' Mean?Stable disease means the cancer has not clearly grown or shrunk on scans. It is often a reassuring, workable result. Here's what it means and what to ask.
- What Does 'Undifferentiated' or 'Anaplastic' Mean?Undifferentiated cells look very little like normal cells. NCI lists undifferentiated as grade 4. What to ask.
- What Does 'Well Differentiated' Mean?A plain-language explanation of tumor differentiation — well, moderately, and poorly differentiated — and what it says about grade.
- What Does "High Grade" Mean?High Grade explained in plain English: what it can mean, what it cannot prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does "Low Grade" Mean?Low Grade explained in plain English: what it can mean, what it cannot prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does "No Evidence of Disease" (NED) Mean?"No evidence of disease" (NED) means tests can't detect cancer right now. How NED differs from "cured," and what it means for follow-up.
- What Does "Residual Disease" Mean?Residual disease means cancer cells remain after treatment or removal attempts. What the phrase can mean, what it does not prove, and what to ask.
- What Does a FIGO Stage Mean?What a FIGO stage such as IB2, IIIC1 or IVB means on a cervical, ovarian or endometrial cancer report, in plain language. Based on the National Cancer Institute.
- What Does a Gleason Score Mean?The Gleason score describes how prostate cancer cells look under a microscope and how likely they are to grow.
- What Does a Gleason Score of 6 Mean?Gleason 6 on a prostate biopsy report: what NCI says it means, why it is the bottom of the scale, and what to ask next.
- What Does a Gleason Score of 7 Mean? (3+4 vs 4+3)Gleason 7 on a prostate biopsy report: what the two numbers mean, why 3+4 and 4+3 are not the same, and what to ask.
- What Does a Gleason Score of 8 Mean?Gleason 8 on a prostate biopsy report: what NCI says high grade means, how it maps to Grade Group 4, and what to ask next.
- What Does a Gleason Score of 9 or 10 Mean?Gleason 9 and 10 on a prostate biopsy report: what NCI says, why both map to Grade Group 5, and what to ask next.
- What Does Grade Group Mean in Prostate Cancer?Grade Group turns the two Gleason patterns on a prostate pathology report into a 1-to-5 scale that starts at 1, not at 6.
- What Does Lugano Criteria Mean?Lugano criteria are used to assess lymphoma stage and response on imaging, especially PET/CT.
- What Does M Stage Mean in Cancer?M Stage can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What Does Measurable Disease Mean?Measurable Disease can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What Does N Stage Mean in Cancer?N Stage can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What does Nottingham grade mean on a breast report?Nottingham grade on a breast pathology report: the three features scored, what G1, G2 and G3 mean, and what to ask next.
- What Does Pathologic Complete Response Mean?pathologic complete response: what it usually means, what it does not prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does RECIST Mean in Cancer?RECIST is a standard way clinical trials and oncologists measure whether solid tumors shrink, grow, or stay stable.
- What Does Stage 0 Cancer Mean?Stage 0 usually means abnormal cells are present but have not spread into nearby tissue.
- What Does T Stage Mean in Cancer?T Stage can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What Does TNM Staging Mean?A plain-language guide to the TNM system — Tumor, Node, Metastasis — used to describe how far a cancer has spread. Based on the National Cancer Institute.
- What Does Tumor Size Mean in Cancer?Tumor size can affect stage and treatment planning, but size is only one part of the picture. Here is how to read the finding calmly.
- What Lymph Node Involvement May MeanWhat node-positive means on a pathology report, how sentinel node biopsy works, what 2/14 means, and what node involvement does and does not decide.
- What Oligometastatic Cancer Means: Oligometastases ExplainedOligometastatic means a limited number of metastases. Some people with it are treated with local therapy aiming at long-term control or even cure.
Biomarker & genetic tests
Results from testing the cancer (or blood) for receptors, gene changes and other markers that can guide treatment choices.
Printable: Oncology Visit Packet
- ALK-Positive Lung Cancer: MeaningALK rearrangement or ALK fusion in non-small cell lung cancer: why it matters, report wording, and questions to ask.
- BRCA Mutation in Ovarian CancerBRCA mutation in ovarian cancer: why it matters, report wording, and questions to ask.
- BRCA Mutation in Prostate CancerBRCA mutation in prostate cancer: why it matters, report wording, and questions to ask.
- dMMR Endometrial Cancer: MeaningdMMR in endometrial cancer: why it matters, report wording, and questions to ask.
- EGFR Mutation in Lung CancerEGFR mutation in non-small cell lung cancer: why it matters, report wording, and questions to ask.
- HER2-Low Breast Cancer: MeaningHER2-low in breast cancer: why it matters, report wording, and questions to ask.
- HRD-Positive Ovarian CancerHRD-positive in ovarian cancer: why it matters, report wording, and questions to ask.
- KRAS G12C in Colorectal CancerKRAS G12C in colorectal cancer: why it matters, report wording, and questions to ask.
- KRAS G12C in Lung Cancer: MeaningKRAS G12C in lung cancer: why it matters, report wording, and questions to ask.
- MSI-H Colorectal Cancer: MeaningMSI-H or dMMR in colorectal cancer: why it matters, report wording, and questions to ask.
- Understanding Oncotype DX & Recurrence ScoresWhat Oncotype DX measures, how it is used to judge chemotherapy benefit, and what the TAILORx trial found.
- Variant of Uncertain Significance (VUS)Practical, source-based guidance on variant of uncertain significance (vus), including planning steps, questions, safety limits, and care-team support.
- What a PD-L1 Score Means for ImmunotherapyPD-L1 scores use TPS, CPS or IC. Cutoffs and assays differ by drug and cancer type, and the score is only one piece of information.
- What Do ER and PR Status Mean?A plain-language explanation of estrogen receptor and progesterone receptor status in breast cancer reports. Based on the National Cancer Institute.
- What Does 'Likely Benign' Mean on a Genetic Test?Labs sort gene changes into five groups, from benign to pathogenic. Here is what 'likely benign' and 'benign' mean.
- What Does 'Pathogenic Variant' Mean on a Genetic Test?A pathogenic variant is a gene change linked to a disease or a higher risk of it, such as cancer.
- What Does "Triple-Negative" Breast Cancer Mean?Triple-negative means a breast cancer tests negative for estrogen receptors, progesterone receptors, and HER2. What that means for treatment options.
- What Does a BRAF V600E Mutation Mean?BRAF V600E explained for patients: what it is, why it may affect treatment options, and what to ask about testing.
- What Does a BRCA Tumor Mutation Mean?BRCA tumor mutation explained for patients: what it is, why it may affect treatment options, and what to ask about testing.
- What Does a KRAS G12C Mutation Mean?KRAS G12C explained for patients: what it is, why it may affect treatment options, and what to ask about testing.
- What Does a ROS1 Fusion Mean?ROS1-positive means a cancer has a change in the ROS1 gene, such as a fusion. It can guide targeted treatment.
- What Does a TP53 Mutation Mean?TP53 makes the protein nicknamed guardian of the genome. It is the most commonly mutated gene in human cancer, and the key question is acquired or inherited.
- What Does an ALK Rearrangement Mean?ALK rearrangement explained for patients: what it is, why it may affect treatment options, and what to ask about testing.
- What Does an EGFR Mutation Mean?An EGFR mutation on a lung cancer report points to specific pills. Which exon it's in decides which ones, and why immunotherapy is usually held back.
- What Does an ESR1 Mutation Mean?Plain-language help for ESR1 mutation on a cancer report: what it may mean, what it does not prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does an NTRK Fusion Mean?NTRK fusion explained for patients: what it is, why it may affect treatment options, and what to ask about testing.
- What Does Antibody-Drug Conjugate Mean?antibody-drug conjugate: what it usually means, what it does not prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does BCR-ABL Mean on a Report?Plain-language help for BCR-ABL on a cancer report: what it may mean, what it does not prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does Circulating Tumor DNA Mean?circulating tumor DNA: what it usually means, what it does not prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does Clonal Hematopoiesis Mean?Clonal hematopoiesis means one family of blood-forming cells has expanded. It is common with age, it is not leukemia, and it can distort a liquid biopsy result.
- What Does dMMR Mean on a Cancer Report?dMMR means deficient mismatch repair. The four proteins, how it relates to MSI-H, the two drugs approved on this marker alone, and their response rates.
- What Does EGFR Exon 20 Mean?EGFR Exon 20 can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What Does FISH Amplification Mean?FISH Amplification can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What Does FISH Test Mean in Cancer?FISH lights up chosen genes or chromosome regions under a microscope. What it counts, where it is ordered, and what it ignores.
- What Does Guardant360 Mean?Guardant360: what it usually means, what it does not prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does HER2 Positive, Negative, or Low Mean?HER2 is a protein tested on some cancers, especially breast cancer. What HER2 positive and negative results mean, and how they guide treatment options.
- What Does HER2-Low Mean on a Report?HER2-low explained for patients: what it is, why it may affect treatment options, and what to ask about testing.
- What Does Hormone Receptor Status Mean?Hormone receptor status tells whether cancer cells have receptors for estrogen or progesterone. It helps guide treatment.
- What Does HRD-Positive Mean?HRD-positive explained for patients: what it is, why it may affect treatment options, and what to ask about testing.
- What Does IHC 0, 1+, 2+, or 3+ Mean?IHC 0, 1+, 2+, or 3+ can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What Does Immunohistochemistry (IHC) Mean?A plain-language explanation of immunohistochemistry — a lab test that uses stains to identify proteins in cancer cells. Based on the National Cancer Institute.
- What Does MammaPrint Score Mean?MammaPrint Score can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What Does Microsatellite Instability (MSI) Mean?A plain-language explanation of microsatellite instability and mismatch repair status on a pathology report. Based on the National Cancer Institute.
- What Does Minimal Residual Disease Mean?minimal residual disease: what it usually means, what it does not prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does Molecular Residual Disease Mean?molecular residual disease: what it usually means, what it does not prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does Molecular Tumor Board Mean?Molecular Tumor Board can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What Does MRD Mean in Cancer?MRD means measurable or minimal residual disease, a sensitive way to look for small amounts of cancer after treatment.
- What Does MSI-H Mean on a Report?MSI-H on a tumor report means high microsatellite instability. What it can mean for immunotherapy, how it relates to Lynch syndrome, and its limits.
- What Does Oncotype DX Score Mean?Oncotype DX Score can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What Does PARP Inhibitor Mean?PARP inhibitor: what it usually means, what it does not prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does PD-L1 CPS Mean?PD-L1 CPS explained for patients: what it is, why it may affect treatment options, and what to ask about testing.
- What Does PD-L1 TPS Mean?PD-L1 TPS explained for patients: what it is, why it may affect treatment options, and what to ask about testing.
- What Does PTEN Loss Mean?PTEN is a tumor suppressor gene. Loss may mean missing protein or a changed gene, and tumor-only versus inherited is the key question.
- What Does Signatera Mean?Signatera: what it usually means, what it does not prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does TMB-High Mean on a Report?TMB-high explained for patients: what it is, why it may affect treatment options, and what to ask about testing.
- What Does Tumor-Informed ctDNA Mean?tumor-informed ctDNA: what it usually means, what it does not prove, and what to ask next.
Reading any report
Comparisons, hedging words and care-team terms that show up across many kinds of reports.
Printable: Oncology Visit Packet
- Oncologist vs. Hematologist: Who Does WhatAn oncologist is trained to diagnose and treat cancer. A hematologist is trained to diagnose and treat blood disorders. Their roles can overlap.
- Palliative Care vs. Hospice: What's the Difference?Palliative care is comfort-focused care you can have at any stage, alongside treatment. Hospice is comfort care when treatment to cure has stopped.
- What Does 'Cannot Be Ruled Out' Mean on a Report?'Cannot be ruled out' means a possibility remains open, not that it is confirmed.
- What Does "Cannot Exclude Malignancy" Mean?Cannot Exclude Malignancy explained in plain English: what it can mean, what it cannot prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does "Clinical Correlation Recommended" Mean on a Report?"Clinical correlation recommended" asks your doctor to compare a scan finding with your symptoms, exam and lab results. It is a note between doctors, not a diagnosis.
- What Does Adjuvant Treatment Mean?Adjuvant treatment is given after the main treatment to lower the chance cancer returns. Here's what the term means and what to ask your care team.
- What Does CAR T-Cell Therapy Mean?CAR T-cell therapy: what it usually means, what it does not prove, and what to ask next.
- What Does ECOG Performance Status Mean?ECOG Performance Status can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What Does Equivocal Result Mean?Equivocal means a test landed between its own two answers. Why that happens, what it is not, and what to ask your team.
- What Does Karnofsky Performance Status Mean?Karnofsky Performance Status can appear in cancer reports or oncology notes. Learn what it can mean, what it cannot tell alone, and what to ask next.
- What Does Neoadjuvant Treatment Mean?Neoadjuvant treatment is given before the main treatment, often to shrink a tumor before surgery.
- When Patient Portal Test Results Cause PanicWhy results reach your portal before the clinician calls, what the wording means, and a practical sequence for the moment you open one.
- Why Imaging and Pathology May Describe Cancer DifferentlyWhy a scan and a pathology report can describe the same cancer differently, and what to ask your care team.
Next step
Turn what you read into questions for the team who can interpret your report.
Looking for a single word? Try the glossary or site search. Want the tests themselves explained (biopsies, scans, blood tests)? See Diagnosis & tests. Getting ready for a visit? See Prepare for your appointment.
How this page was created
Cancer Explained does not originate medical claims. Every page restates guidance already published by the National Cancer Institute, the CDC, the USPSTF and the FDA, in plain language, with the source cited so you can check the original yourself. AI does the translating and organizing; automated checks test claims, citations, clarity and safety before anything publishes, and this is translation and navigation, not clinical judgment. Nothing here is personal medical advice, and no page can account for your particular situation.
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